Analysis of Psychodynamic and behavioral appoaches essays

Analysis of Psychodynamic and behavioral appoaches essays In the study of psychology there are two major approaches that are used to help interpret and understand human behavior. These approaches include the behavioral, and psychoanalytical. A better look at each of these approaches would allow you to view both the positive and negative elements of both as well as enabling you to see the differences and similarities among them. Originating from the work of John B. Watson the behavioral approach is based on the belief that behavior is learned, thus all behavior can be unlearned and new behaviors learned in its place.(funderstanding.com/behaviorism.cfm) Behaviorism is concerned primarily with the observable and measurable aspects of human behavior. Behaviorists believe only observable and verifiable events can be accurately researched with strict scientific rigor and dont explore an individuals thoughts, feelings, dreams, or past experiences. Focusing on behavior, enables researchers to learn that careful description of what constitutes desired behavior is necessary for reinforcing it. Its greatest strength is that it demands specific identification of action, rather than relying on concepts that are subject to extensive interpretation and impossible to verify scientifically. Like any psychological method, the behaviorist approach has its critics. Some argue that just studying human behavior isnt fully studying human psychology due to the fact that they have failed to study the complexity of the human mind and human nature. Others feel behaviorists also portray free will as a petty influence on humans compared to outside forces in the environment. Psychoanalysts argue that by failing to study the unconscious, a characteristic of the behavioral approach, they are leaving out what is most interesting and unique about human beings. Perhaps the greatest weakness of this approach is the ethical consequences of behaviorism. Man is stripped of his responsibility,...

What Is the Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE)

What Is the Advanced International Certificate of Education (AICE) SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips For students looking for a more challenging high school experience or for a chance to earn college credit, many high schools offer advanced college-level programs. The newest one of these is the Cambridge AICE, an international diploma program created via the University of Cambridge in England. Curious about whether this program is right for you? In this article, I'll explain the AICE approach, the coursework necessary to get the diploma, and how it compares to AP and IB classes. What Is the Cambridge AICE? AICE, which stands for Advanced International Certificate of Educationand is pronounced like the word "ace," is aset of challenging college-level classes forhigh school students. It was developed by Cambridge Assessment, a non-profit, non-teaching department of the University of Cambridge in England. Like theAP and IB programs, AICE was designed to give students the option to pursue a more rigorous and ambitiouscurriculumby teaching youkey skills to succeed in college-level work.At the same time, AICE classes and the diploma structure are flexible enough to let students tailor the coursework to their specific interests and strengths. Besides the academic and intellectual appeal of learning in greater depth, AICE lets you earn an advanced diploma toboost your college application. Italso has the potential toget you college credit or let you place out of intro courses once you're a freshman. However, because it is still a newer program, not all colleges viewAICE classes in the same way they do AP classes. You can use the Cambridge Assessments lookup tool tocheck whether your target college accepts AICE. Where Is AICE Offered? Currentlyin the US, AICE is primarily offered in Florida high schools,though there are several other schools offering the diploma scattered throughout the country. In Canada, AICE is only available in Toronto, but there are schools affiliated with AICE throughout the world, primarily in Great Britain. If you’re looking for a school that offers the AICE diploma, you can useCambridge Assessment’s lookup tool to find high schools around you. The Financial Benefits of AICE On top of its emphasis on flexible class offerings and its potential to strengthen your college application, AICE has several financial benefits as well. For one, AICE classes and exams are free for students- your school pays all the fees for this program! For students in Florida, an AICE Diploma is a great way to secure some money for college.If you've earned the diploma and completed 100 hours of community service, you will automatically qualify for the Florida Academic Scholars Award viathe Florida Bright Futures Scholarship Program. But you don't need to earn the AICE diploma to get this scholarship. Some combinations of AICE coursework, community service hours, and minimum scores on the SAT/ACT are also ways to win Florida Bright Futures awards. How Do You Enroll in the AICE Program? You can't sign up for AICE on your own but instead mustrely on your school to provide it- the same way your schooleither does or doesn't provide Honors and AP classes. If your school wants to sign up to offer AICE classes to students, your principal or head of school can go tothe website that explains how to have your school join. AICE is not guaranteed to teach you to levitate books, but there's nothing stopping you from using that argument to convince your principal to sign up. How Is AICE Structured? The AICE program is made up of one-year classes called AS Levels, andtwo-year classes called A Levels. AICE classes can be taken individually, or you can take the two-year program and get an AICE diploma. There are some classes that can be started at the AS Level and then extended to the A Level later. What Are the Classes Like? AICE classes put a lot of emphasis on writing, critical thinking, and delving deep into their subjects. AICE classes aren't very rigidly structured, and AICE exams are somewhat modular. This flexibilitygives teachers a lot more room to spend extra time investigating what seems to be interesting to students and leaving out or shortening other course sections. Individual Classes vs Full Diploma With AICE, you get the choice of either taking individual classes from their course menu, or doing the full course of study needed to get the diploma. If you decide to just take individual AICE classes, colleges will treat them just as they do individual AP classes. These courses will add rigor to your transcript, count more in your weighted GPA, and show colleges that you are willing to challenge yourself and are a motivated student. Getting the AICE diploma requires a much bigger investment of time and effort. But, since each class was designed to be part of the program, the skills and knowledge you learn from one class will benefit you in others. Also, the classes are structured to fit together to give you a more rounded perspective on global issues. To get the AICE full diploma, you need toearn seven course credits within a 25-month period (previously thefull diploma only required six credits). One of these seven credits needs to bethe mandatory core class Global Perspectives and Research. Working on the core was mandatory, but Joe couldn't help feeling a little silly digging around inside a giant apple. What Classes Can You Take? If you're going for the full AICE diploma, the one class you will have to take is the Cambridge International AS and A Level Global Perspectives and Research. This class is the core of the program. But don't worry- it's less a content-heavy class and more a skills-building workshop. In Global Perspectives and Research, you first pick three global topics out of 30 options,such as artificial intelligence, international sport, tourism, and many others. Then, you conduct research to examine these topics from different perspectives, such as the economic impact, ethical dilemmas, environmental forecasts, and so on. Finally, you write a paper, take an exam, and do a group project about your research. All the other classes are your choice. These fall into four groups: Group 1: Mathematics and Sciences Group 2: Languages Group 3: Arts and Humanities Group 4: Interdisciplinary In order to earnthe diploma, you'll need at least one credit each fromGroups 1, 2, and 3. You can have at most two credits from Group 4. Other than that, anything goes. For example, if you're a math whiz, you can load up on the Mathematics and Sciences classes, and only take one class from the Languages Group and one from the Arts and Humanities Group. What do you mean, that's an overload of math? There's no such thing as an overload of math! Here are all the available classes in the AICE Diploma program: Group 1: Mathematics and Sciences Group 2: Languages Group 3: Arts and Humanities Group 4: Interdisciplinary and Skills-BasedSubjects Biology Afrikaans Accounting English General Paper Chemistry Arabic Art and Design Global Perspectives and Research Computer Science Chinese Business Thinking Skills Design and Technology English Language Classical Studies Environmental Management French Design and Textiles Further Mathematics German Digital Media and Design Information Technology Hindi Divinity Marine Science Japanese Language Economics Mathematics Language and Literature in English Environmental Management Physical Education Marathi Food Studies Physical Science Portuguese French Literature Physics Spanish Geography Psychology Tamil Hindi Literature Urdu Hinduism History Islamic Studies Language and Literature in English Law Literature in English Media Studies Music Nepal Studies Portuguese Literature Physical Education Psychology Sociology Spanish Literature Travel and Tourism How Does Grading Work? In each class, you'll do a variety of graded work. In addition to final exams, students write essays, create presentations, and do group projects. Most of this work is graded by your teacher, but some of the essays, presentations, and all the exams are sent away to be graded by Cambridge Assessment. In each class, the range of passing grades goes from A* to E. A* is the AICE version of an A+. Getting an E is basically like getting a C in normal US grading, or like getting a 3 on an AP exam. Depending on your individual AICE class grades, your full diploma will be awarded with Distinction, with Merit, or Pass. The more ornate the certificate, the greater the diploma honors. Distinction diplomas come studded with emeralds and feature a gilded background of the full text ofHamlet. Should You Take AICE? If the only advanced curriculum that your school offers is the AICE program, you should definitely sign up for as many courses as you can reasonably handle and do well in. The classes are similar to AP and IB classes in difficulty level, and colleges love seeing transcripts that show your willingness to tackle hard classes and manage a heavier workload. But what if you have to choose between AICE, AP, and IB? I will lay out the pros and cons of each to help you decide. Should You Take AICE or AP? First, let's talk about the differences between theAICE and AP programs. AICE is designed almost in opposition to the way AP classes are structured. The AICE Diploma is a program rather thana random selection of classes. This means that it can offerclasses in niche subjects, such as tourism and marine science, and then fit those classes into an overall globally minded framework. Also, unlike AP classes, which tend to go wide and broad in their subject areas, AICE classes are more narrow and focused. AICE classes stress essay writing and project-based learning over rote memorization and multiple-choice exams. Because of this, teachers can dive deep into details and deemphasize others, depending on student interest. According to some students, this also means that the AICE exams seem easier- as long as you have a well-reasoned, supported argument and can write well, your answers should get a good score. Finally,whereas college credit for AP classes is based on the score you get on the AP exam, college credit for AICE classes is based on passing the exam, not on the specific score you receive. In other words, a 3 on an AP exam probably won't get you college credit in more selective colleges, but an E in an AICE class might. If you have the choice between AP and AICE, pick AP if: You are a very good test taker who does best with fact-based learning You are interested in a subject AP offers and AICE doesn't offer An excellent teacher is teaching the AP level You've already taken the AICE level of a particular class but are now interested in getting a broader overview of the same subject Your target collegesdo not recognize AICE Pick AICE if: You are interested in getting the full diploma You would like to learn about a subject from a global perspective You want toimprove your writing and public-speaking skills You aren't sure you can get a 5 on an AP exam but would like to try for college credit or advanced placement You live in Florida and canbenefit financially from the Bright Futures Scholarship Florida: land of Disney, sea cows, and free college money for good students. Should You Take AICE or IB? The IB and AICE programs are much more similar than they are different in the way they both approach teaching and the curricula of their classes. The main distinguishing characteristic of AICE is that Cambridge Assessments is notably vocal in its concerns abouthomework load, which is something IB doesn't address. AICE homework is designed to maximize yourlearning without unnecessary repetition or busywork. The designers of AICE talk a lot aboutstudentneed to have time for extracurricular activities as well asfamily and social lives. AICE is also more flexible for students who have strengths in certain subject areas. Unlike with the IB program, with AICE you can get the AICE Diploma by taking mostly classes in the subject group where your strengths or interests lie. If you have a choice between IB and AICE, pick IB if: You are interested in a more structuredprogram in which you won't have to design your own course of study An amazing teacher is teaching your school's IB program Your targetcolleges do not recognize AICE Pick AICE if: You'd like more flexibility in designing your own course of study You aren't sure if you want to go for the full diploma and would like the option of taking individual classes You are interested in starting some classes at the one-year AS Level before committing to the two-year A Level You live in Florida and canbenefit financially from the Bright Futures Scholarship Why buy the A-Level cow when you can get the AS-Level milk for free? What’s Next? Did you know that the AP also has a diploma program? Check outour complete guide to AP Capstone anda complete list of the schools that offer it. Interested in learning everything you can about all the different advanced placement options? Readour explanation of the International Baccalaureate. Wondering how all of your advanced placement classes will benefit you once you get to college? We’ve gotthe scoop on how colleges treat AP credits. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Process Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Process Report - Essay Example Working with polarities/dualities -- body and mind, duty and pleasure, straight and gay -- very much set the mood of this and past sessions and has been very challenging for me. Challenging because it brought me back to the way I was processing some aspects of my life, when I felt it was safer to be at one side or another of the spectrum, rather than the middle where unpredictability would jeopardise my safety and make me feel anxious. In (2T), when I asked Andrew what type of medication he was taking, I learned how little he has revealed to the assessor and indeed to me in the previous sessions. For example, he has not revealed to anyone that he is going to therapy or his doubts about his sexuality, and his depressive condition. The latter makes me aware of some kind of similar narratives that I could encounter in other therapeutic alliances. I feel that with Andrew I am struggling to follow the rhythm and the pace he gave to the session. The ‘dance’ between us sometimes goes out of synch, as he unexpectedly stops and starts (with his silences and overwhelming recounts). This produces in me a constant vigilant state that makes the therapeutic relationship very tiring. However, there are also times in this unsynchronised dance where I am in and out of our therapeutic alliance; the ‘in time’ is when I am present and part of the client’s world and the ‘out’ is when I am the spectator of his world. During this time I move back into my own space where I can reflect and try to make sense of my, his and our world. I am realising more and more the wide river that runs through the client’s intellect and the solid bridge that we need to construct to be able to move freely from one shore to the other. Sometimes I feel that building that bridge is a huge task, and I wonder if we will succeed. The doubt is possibly to do with Andrew being my first client and the complex world

Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech 2 Research Paper

Martin Luther King Jr.'s speech 2 - Research Paper Example Knowing these accomplishments of Martin Luther King, I was awed by him more especially when I knew that he was a pious man, being a Christian pastor. Further research however revealed that Martin Luther King is also a man just like everyone else except of course that he has lofty ideals. The speech â€Å"I Have a Dream† whom we consider as a masterpiece was even written with uncertainty for two reasons; first, King was advised by his aides not to use it anymore because he had been delivering it and it may sound like a cliche. Second, it was not a prepared speech but was only written the night before and up to the delivery of the speech, it underwent rigorous editing that its delivery may have been the first that the final version was completed. These information were of course not immediately associated with the speech of King but it was a good idea that Martin Luther King is also man, subject to its own insecurities but managed to overcome it by his lofty ideals that is rever ed by generations after him. I. Picture and description of historical event (Source: Historywired) This is a picture Martin Luther King delivering the legendary â€Å"I have a dream speech† from the steps of Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963. Looking at the picture alone, it looked like everything went perfect for the organizers of the march as well as the crowd. King was on a stage delivering his speech as intended while the audiences as shown in the background were intently listening as expected. The outcome was so successful that we are tempted to think that there were no issues during the preparation of this speech. Until of course when we dig deeper that we realize that such event was just like any other event where the organizers were jittery and unsure of what will be the outcome. For instance, attempting to stage a march of a projected number of 100,000 people (around 250,000 showed up) is unprecedented and they we re not sure if they can reach that number (Younge). Just when we thought that the â€Å"I Have a Dream† speech itself was a perfectly prepared speech as depicted in the picture that was customized for the occasion, it was actually the opposite. Readers may be blown away with the fact that the â€Å"I Have a Dream Speech† was nearly not delivered because Martin Luther King was discouraged by aides for delivering a speech that has that theme cautioning him that it may already be an overuse and already a cliche. Younge narrated that â€Å"the night before the March on Washington, on 28 August 1963, Martin Luther King asked his aides for advice about the next day's speech. "Don't use the lines about 'I have a dream', his adviser Wyatt Walker told him. "It's trite, it's cliche. You've used it too many times already." This meant that up to the last moment of the march, King did not even have a speech yet. The night before when his aide checked him in his room, he was still writing it and the paper had many erasures. Even the final speech itself had many corrections indicating that up to the last moment, King had been editing his speech and the delivered speech may be the first recitation of the repeatedly edited speech. This apparent cramming in preparation of the speech was

Saving Free Speech -- Harassment Freedom Rights Essays

Saving Free Speech It's difficult to imagine America as a country that tolerates open discrimination and harassment of people of different race or ethnicity. Yet, somehow it is also difficult to imagine America without considering its history scarred by racial intolerance and subjugation. It's strange how a country that was supposedly founded on the fundamental assertion that all people are created equal and have the basic right to freedom from oppression continues to deal with these problems. Racial and ethnic harassment has even spread to this country's institutions of higher learning. Iowa State University is not immune to this epidemic. Consider the following incident, which occurred as recently as fall of 2003, as described in the Iowa State Daily on November 5 by columnist Amy Peet. A certain individual of the ethnic minority found her room ransacked and vandalized. Hateful notes and phone calls were left in her dorm room, and there were "phantom knocks" on her door. This person and her close friends genuinely felt disturbed, angered, and threatened. This incident is only one example; several such cases have occurred at Iowa State and other institutions across the country. The argument concerning such cases focuses on the right to free speech guaranteed to every American citizen by the First Amendment. Our Bill of Rights guarantees each person the opportunity to voice his or her own opinions without repression from the executive powers. But is it still considered `free speech' if the things that are said are meant to cause harm, discomfort, or to threaten? Does the First Amendment still protect those who would use words to such a malicious end? In an effort to deal with the rising number of claims of verbal... ...done when words are spoken. The policy on harassment becomes effective only when those mere words become actual, physical actions that place the victim in danger or institute genuine fear and discomfort. The regulation of hate speech, therefore, does not represent an infringement on the First Amendment guarantee to freedom of speech. Rather, it ensures that open, intellectual dialogue can take place in universities where hate speech has continued to become a stronger and more malignant force. Incidents of harassment and abuse are capable of being dealt with in a manner that is fair and consistent with the doctrines enshrined in the First Amendment. The enforcement of Iowa State's policy on racial and ethnic harassment is a set of principles that need to be followed in order to maintain the atmosphere of education and equal opportunity this institution represents.

Lord of the Flies (Men are inherently evil) Essay

â€Å"Man produces evil as a bee produces honey† was a remark that was made by William Golding after his experience serving in the second world war. Lord of the Flies is a symbolic novel of his experience and this quote was his way of showing that all men were evil; it was as natural for a human to be evil as it was for a bee to produce honey. However, despite being within a bee’s natural instinct to produce honey, it isn’t within a human’s natural instinct to be evil. It is shown in Golding’s novel that society influences one’s morality. Lord of the Flies also shows that humans are self-serving, looking out for themselves and that sometimes it is necessary to be corrupt to survive. We also see that it is within a humans’ instinct to follow a leader whether they are moral or immoral. Lord of the Flies demonstrates that one’s morality is influenced by the society they are in. John Locke, an English philosopher, believed that humans were born clean and pure, but it was society that influenced the evil inside them. This is evident in Golding’s novel as even the most ‘evil’ character, Jack, has shown signs of being moral. In the second chapter, when he comes back from discovering that they were on an island, he states, â€Å"‘We’ve got to have rules and obey them.†Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ The author uses irony to compare the difference of Jack’s behaviour from the start of the novel to the end. However, perhaps we see Jack as the most corrupt character because he was the first to realise that in order to survive, he would need to be more sadistic, more savage. It is obvious from then on that he tries not to show compassion, innocence or kindness. At times, he does not succeed. An example of this is on page fifty-five when Jack sa ys, â€Å"You can feel†¦you’re not hunting, but- being hunted.† This quote shows Jack’s uncertainty, and he explains that you have to be animal-like to survive and live as long as you can in a society without rules and laws, something Locke thought was absolutely necessary to sustain happiness. Here, Jack seems to relate to himself as an animal, which shows that he only acts the way he does because he saw the circumstances they were in, and decided that the only way to get off the island alive was to be beast-like. Humans are self-serving which is why they may be perceived as evil. In order  to fit in and feel safe, sometimes selfish acts will be pursued. Golding writes for the characters to become more savage. This attribute even reaches the symbol of goodness and order, Ralph. He realises that in order to survive, he could not always do the correct thing. On page one hundred and thirty-eight, Golding uses personification twice to create the drama in his message. â€Å"Piggy and Ralph, under the threat of the sky found themselves eager to take a place in this demented but partly secure society†. He is trying to dramatise the evilness that Piggy and Ralph have succumbed to, melding with the others, however, all this quote proves is their common longing for a place with others and not any depth of evilness. We see that people who starting in the were following Ralph ‘the good side’ joined. It is within our human instincts to follow a leader, whether they are moral or immoral. Having a powerful leader gives the ‘weaker’ ones a sense of safety, and in Lord of the Flies, the two main leaders were Ralph and Jack. Ralph was the leader of the ‘good’ side, while Jack was the chief of the ‘evil’ side. The members of Jack’s tribe are not evil in nature, but are merely forced to follow his orders as he believes this is crucial for them to subsist. â€Å"With dreary obedience the choir raised their hands.† The use of imagery in this quote (shows) that when Ralph asks the young children who they would vote for for chief, the choir-boys felt obliged to vote for Jack. Jack can be compared to Adolf Hitler, a dictator in World War II. Hitler manipulated his soldiers, and alters their thinking. Similarly, Jack is doing the same thing. Leading the ‘evil’ side, he adjusts the minds of the choir-boys. The people who are fol lowing Jack are doing so for a sense of protection as he is powerful. Despite being first published fifty years ago, Lord of the Flies is still studied and read to this day as it shows that it is brutality of the second world war. Golding subtly passes through his message that what happened in Germany could occur anywhere and that sometimes, it is necessary to be evil. Throughout the novel, we see the lengths some of them, in particular Jack, go to for survival. We are shown that it is necessary to pursue evil acts in ‘life or death’ situations and that it is of human nature to choose a leader and follow his actions, even if they are immoral.

Definitions of English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

The term English as a lingua franca (ELF) refers to the teaching, learning, and use of the English language as a common means of communication  (or contact language) for speakers of different native languages.Although most contemporary  linguists  regard English as a lingua franca (ELF) as a valuable means of international communication and a worthwhile object of study, some have challenged the idea that ELF is a distinct variety of English. Prescriptivists  (generally non-linguists) tend to dismiss ELF as  a kind of foreigner talk  or what has been disparagingly called BSE--bad simple English.British linguist Jennifer Jenkins points out that ELF is not a new phenomenon. English, she says, has served as a lingua franca in the past, and continues to do so nowadays, in many of the countries that were colonized by the British from the late sixteenth century on (often known collectively as the Outer Circle following Kachru 1985), such as India and Singapore. . . . What is new about ELF, however, is the extent of its reach (English as a Lingua Franca in the International University, 2013).   Examples and Observations As well as being used--often in a very simple form--by tourists, ELF is prominent in international politics and diplomacy, international law, business, the media, and in tertiary education and scientific research--which Yamuna Kachru and Larry Smith (2008: 3) call ELFs mathetic function--so it is clearly not a reduced lingua franca in the terms original (Frankish) sense. Yet it usually differs from English as a native language (ENL), the language used by NESs [native English speakers]. Spoken ELF contains a huge amount of linguistic variation and non-standard forms (although formal written ELF tends to resemble ENL to a much greater extent).(Ian Mackenzie,  English as a Lingua Franca: Theorizing and Teaching English. Routledge, 2014)ELF in Local and International SettingsEnglish operates as a lingua franca at a number of different levels, including local, national, regional and international. Apparently paradoxically, the more localised the use of English as a lingua franca, the mo re variation it is likely to display. This can be explained by reference . . . to the identity--communication continuum. When used in a local setting, ELF will display identity markers. Thus code-switching and the explicit [use] of nativised norms can be expected. When used for international communication, on the other hand, speakers will consciously avoid the use of local and nativised norms and expressions.(Andy Kirkpatrick,  World Englishes: Implications for International Communication and English Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 2007)Is ELF a Variety of English?Whether ELF should be called a variety of English at all is an open question, and one which cannot be answered as long as we do not have any good descriptions of it. It is well known that divisions between languages are arbitrary, and therefore those between varieties of a language have to be as well. Once descriptions are available of how speakers from different linguacultural backgrounds use ELF, this wi ll make it possible to consider whether it would make sense to think of English as it is spoken by its non-native speakers as falling into different varieties, just as is the English spoken by its native speakers. . . . It is likely that ELF, like any other natural language, will turn out to vary, and to change over time. It does not make much sense, therefore, to talk about a monolithic variety as such: a variety can be treated as if it were a monolith, but this is a convenient fiction, for the process of variation itself never stops.(Barbara Seidlhofer, English as a Lingua Franca in the Expanding Circle: What It Isnt.  English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, ed. by  Rani Rubdy and Mario Saraceni.  Continuum, 2006)Two ApproachesSeeing as the movement to bring forth the conceptualization of English as a lingua franca is gaining momentum worldwide, and more specifically for Europe, it is imperative that an analysis is made of the implications of the two differing appr oaches . . .. One is the (traditional) idea that English is a lingua franca for a non-native speaker constituency which should pursue knowledge of the language as if it were a foreign language. The other, upheld by those who have bought into the world Englishes paradigm, is to see English as a lingua franca for interlocutors who use it with others in multicultural settings (and thus see English in its diversity as opposed to viewing English as a prescriptive entity defined by idealized inner-circle speakers). It should be made clear, moreover, that my own position here is that a lingua franca must be inclusive as opposed to exclusive. That is to say, it is imperative that our understanding of how English is used in Europe is integrated with a vision of a communicatively viable use of the language internationally.(Marko Modiano, EIL, Native-Speakerism and the Failure of European ELT.  English as an International Language: Perspectives and Pedagogical Issues, ed. by  Farzad Sharif ian. Multilingual Matters, 2009)